With the exception of Chapter and Section headings, all coloured text has been inserted by AccessIPCC. The non-coloured text is the IPCC original.

A number of emails from the Climate Research Unit (CRU) of the University of East Anglia were published on the Internet in November 2009. This has provided a window into the world of climate science.

We have identified a number of key individuals involved in the emails whom we have designated as Persons of Concern [PoC]; a Journal in which a PoC has published has been designated as a Journal of Concern [JoC].

This is not to suggest that we believe such papers are necessarily flawed, but rather that, as Joseph Alcamo noted at Bali in October 2009, "as policymakers and the public begin to grasp the multi-billion dollar price tag for mitigating and adapting to climate change, we should expect a sharper questioning of the science behind climate policy".

References occur in a list at the end of each chapter. Citations are within the normal text of sections and paragraphs.

Definition of Tags Used

Tag	Explanation	Where Used	References	Citations
PoC	Person of Concern Key individual involved in CRU emails as defined in this spreadsheet. NOTE: we anticipate that this definition will be expanded as more data is coded.	References, Citations, IPCC Roles	-	-
JoC	Journal of Concern A Journal which has published articles by one or more PoCs (Person of Concern)	References, Citations	2	2
MoS	Model or Simulation Reference appears to be a model or simulation, not observation or experiment	References, Citations	16	16
NPR	Non Peer Reviewed Reference has no Journal or no Volume or no Pages or it has Editors.	References, Citations	275	243
SRC	Self Reference Concern Author of a chapter containing references to own work.	References, Citations, IPCC Roles	45	66
ARC	Paper authored or co-authored by person who is also in list of Authors of another chapter.	References, Citations	7	7
2007	Paper dated 2007, when IPCC policy stated cutoff was December 2005 with mid-February 2006 for exceptions.	References, Citations	3	3
Ambiguous	The short inline citation matched with more than one reference; however, AccessIPCC will link to the first reference found.	Citations	-	1
NotFound	The short inline citation was not matched with any reference. Believed to be caused by typing errors.	Citations	-	2
Clean	The reference was probably peer reviewed. The reference was dated before the cutoff (2005-2006). Its authors were not members of the Team. It was not published in a Journal of Concern. Its authors were not AR4 Authors.	References, Citations	84	82

Chapter Table of Contents

Title	Clean	Tagged	NotFound	Ambiguous
Chapter 6: Residential and commercial buildings	-	-	-	-
6.1 Introduction	-	-	-	-
6.10 Critical gaps in knowledge	-	-	-	-
6.2 Trends in buildings sector emissions	-	5	-	-
6.3 Scenarios of carbon emissions resulting from energy use in buildings	-	4	-	-
6.4 GHG mitigation options in buildings and equipment	-	2	-	-
6.4.1 Overview of energy efficiency principles	-	-	-	-
6.4.1.1 Reduce heating, cooling and lighting loads	-	-	-	-
6.4.1.2 Utilize active solar energy and other environmental heat sources and sinks	-	-	-	-
6.4.1.3 Increase efficiency of appliances, heating and cooling equipment and ventilation	-	-	-	-
6.4.1.4 Implement commissioning and improve operations and maintenance	1	2	-	-
6.4.1.5 Change behaviour	-	-	-	-
6.4.1.6 Utilize system approaches to building design	1	1	-	-
6.4.1.7 Consider building form, orientation and related attributes	-	-	-	-
6.4.1.8 Minimize halocarbon emissions	-	-	-	-
6.4.10 Daylighting	4	6	-	-
6.4.11 Household appliances, consumer electronics and office equipment	2	13	-	-
6.4.12 Supermarket refrigeration systems	-	-	-	-
6.4.13 Energy savings through retrofits	-	-	-	-
6.4.13.1 Conventional retrofits of residential buildings	4	3	-	-
6.4.13.2 Conventional retrofits of institutional and commercial buildings	1	-	-	-
6.4.13.3 Solar retrofits of residential, institutional and commercial buildings	1	5	-	-
6.4.14 Trade-offs between embodied energy and operating energy	3	1	-	-
6.4.15 Trade-offs involving energy-related emissions and halocarbon emissions	-	2	-	-
6.4.16 Summary of mitigation options in buildings	-	-	-	-
6.4.2 Thermal envelope	9	-	-	-
6.4.2.1 Insulation	1	-	-	-
6.4.2.2 Windows	-	-	-	-
6.4.2.3 Air leakage	2	2	-	-
6.4.3 Heating systems	-	-	-	-
6.4.3.1 Passive solar heating	1	4	-	-
6.4.3.2 Space heating systems	5	4	-	-
6.4.4 Cooling and cooling loads	-	-	-	-
6.4.4.1 Reducing the cooling load	1	-	-	-
6.4.4.2 Passive and low-energy cooling techniques	5	6	-	-
6.4.4.3 Air conditioners and vapour-compression chillers	-	-	-	-
6.4.5 Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems	-	-	-	-
6.4.5.1 Principles of energy-efficient HVAC design	5	1	-	-
6.4.5.2 Alternative HVAC systems in commercial buildings	4	2	-	-
6.4.6 Building energy management systems (BEMS)	3	6	-	-
6.4.6.1 Commissioning	3	3	-	-
6.4.6.2 Operation, maintenance and performance benchmarking	5	5	-	-
6.4.7 Active collection and transformation of solar energy	-	-	-	-
6.4.7.1 Building-integrated PV (BiPV)	1	2	-	-
6.4.7.2 Solar thermal energy for heating and hot water	1	3	-	-
6.4.8 Domestic hot water	2	-	-	-
6.4.9 Lighting systems	-	-	-	-
6.5 Potential for and costs of greenhouse gas mitigation in buildings	-	-	-	-
6.5.1 Recent advances in potential estimations from around the world	-	10	-	-
6.5.2 Recent advances in estimating the costs of GHG mitigation in buildings	-	1	-	-
6.5.3 Supply curves of conserved carbon dioxide	-	9	-	-
6.5.4 Most attractive measures in buildings	-	1	-	-
6.5.5 Energy and cost savings through use of the Integrated Design Process (IDP)	-	1	-	-
6.6 Co-benefits of GHG mitigation in the residential and commercial sectors	-	1	-	-
6.6.1 Reduction in local/regional air pollution	1	1	-	-
6.6.2 Improved health, quality of life and comfort	2	4	-	-
6.6.3 Improved productivity	3	1	2	-
6.6.4 Employment creation and new business opportunities	1	4	-	-
6.6.5 Improved social welfare and poverty alleviation	-	3	-	-
6.6.6 Energy security	-	4	-	-
6.6.7 Summary of co-benefits	-	-	-	-
6.7 Barriers to adopting building technologies and practices that reduce GHG emissions	-	1	-	-
6.7.1 Limitations of the traditional building design process and fragmented market structure	-	1	-	-
6.7.2 Misplaced incentives	1	5	-	-
6.7.3 Energy subsidies, non-payment and theft	-	2	-	-
6.7.4 Regulatory barriers	1	3	-	-
6.7.5 Small project size, transaction costs and perceived risk	-	-	-	-
6.7.6 Imperfect information	1	2	-	-
6.7.7 Culture, behaviour, lifestyle and the rebound effect	-	6	-	-
6.7.8 Other barriers	-	4	-	-
6.8 Policies to promote GHG mitigation in buildings	-	1	-	-
6.8.1 Policies and programmes aimed at building construction, retrofits, and installed equipment and systems	-	-	-	-
6.8.1.1 Building codes	-	8	-	-
6.8.1.2 Building certification and labelling systems	-	6	-	-
6.8.1.3 Education, training and energy audit programmes	-	4	-	-
6.8.2 Policies and programmes aimed at appliances, lighting and office/consumer plug loads	-	-	-	-
6.8.2.1 Standards and labelling	-	18	-	-
6.8.2.2 Voluntary agreements	-	3	-	-
6.8.3 Cross-cutting policies and programmes that support energy efficiency and/or CO2 mitigation in buildings	-	-	-	-
6.8.3.1 Utility demand-side management programmes	-	2	-	-
6.8.3.2 Energy prices, pricing schemes, energy price subsidies and taxes	2	8	-	-
6.8.3.3 Investment subsidies, financial incentives and other fiscal measures	1	13	-	-
6.8.3.4 Public sector leadership programmes and public procurement policies	-	12	-	-
6.8.3.5 Promotion of energy service companies (ESCOs) and energy performance contracting (EPC)	3	7	-	1
6.8.3.6 Energy-efficiency obligations and tradable energy-efficiency certificates	-	4	-	-
6.8.3.7 The Kyoto Protocol’s Flexibility Mechanisms	1	8	-	-
6.8.3.8 Technology research, development, demonstration and deployment (RD & D)	-	5	-	-
6.8.4 Policies affecting non-CO2 gases	-	-	-	-
6.8.4.1 Stationary refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump applications	-	5	-	-
6.8.4.2 Insulating foams and SF6 in sound-insulating glazing	-	-	-	-
6.8.5 Policy options for GHG abatement in buildings: summary and conclusion	-	5	-	-
6.9 Interactions of mitigation options with vulnerability, adaptation and sustainable development	-	-	-	-
6.9.1 Interactions of mitigation options with vulnerability and adaptation	-	9	-	-
6.9.2 Synergies with sustainability in developing countries	-	5	-	-
Number of citations of various credibilities	82	269	2	1
Percentages of citations of various credibilities	23.2%	76.0%	0.6%	0.3%

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In 2004, emissions from the buildings sector including through electricity use were about 8.6 GtCO₂, 0.1 GtCO₂-eq N₂O, 0.4 GtCO₂-eq CH₄ and 1.5 GtCO₂-eq halocarbons (including CFCs and HCFCs). Using an accounting system that attributes CO₂ emissions to electricity supply rather than buildings end-uses, the direct energy-related carbon dioxide emissions of the building sector are about 3 Gt/yr.

For the buildings sector the literature uses a variety of baselines. Therefore a baseline was derived for this sector based on the literature, resulting in emissions between the B2 and A1B SRES scenarios, with 11.1 Gt of emissions of CO₂ in 2020 and 14.3 GtCO₂ in 2030 (including electricity emissions but omitting halocarbons, which could conceivably be substantially phased out by 2030 ).

Measures to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from buildings fall into one of three categories: reducing energy consumption and embodied energy in buildings, switching to low-carbon fuels including a higher share of renewable energy, or controlling the emissions of non-CO₂ GHG gases. ^[2] This chapter devotes most attention to improving energy efficiency in new and existing buildings, which encompasses the most diverse, largest and most cost-effective mitigation opportunities in buildings.

The key conclusion of the chapter is that substantial reductions in CO₂ emissions from energy use in buildings can be achieved over the coming years using mature technologies for energy efficiency that already exist widely and that have been successfully used (high agreement, much evidence). A significant portion of these savings can be achieved in ways that reduce life-cycle costs, thus providing reductions in CO₂ emissions that have a net benefit rather than cost. However, due to the long lifetime of buildings and their equipment, as well as the strong and numerous market barriers prevailing in this sector, many buildings do not apply these basic technologies to the level life-cycle cost minimisation would warrant (high agreement, much evidence).

Our survey of the literature (80 studies) indicates that there is a global potential to reduce approximately 29% of the projected baseline emissions by 2020 cost-effectively in the residential and commercial sectors, the highest among all sectors studied in this report (high agreement, much evidence). Additionally at least 3% of baseline emissions can be avoided at costs up to 20 US$/tCO₂ and 4% more if costs up to 100 US$/tCO₂ are considered. However, due to the large opportunities at low-costs, the high-cost potential has been assessed to a limited extent, and thus this figure is an underestimate (high agreement, much evidence).

Using the global baseline CO₂ emission projections for buildings, these estimates represent a reduction of approximately 3.2, 3.6 and 4.0 GtCO₂/yr in 2020, at zero, 20 US$/tCO₂ and 100 US$/tCO₂ respectively. Our extrapolation of the potentials to the year 2030 suggests that, globally, about 4.5, 5.0 and 5.6 GtCO₂ at negative cost, <20 US$ and <100 US$/tCO₂-eq respectively, can be reduced (approximately 30, 35 and 40% of the projected baseline emissions) (medium agreement, limited evidence). These numbers are associated with significantly lower levels of certainty than the 2020 ones due to very limited research available for 2030 .

While occupant behaviour, culture and consumer choice and use of technologies are also major determinants of energy use in buildings and play a fundamental role in determining CO₂ emissions (high agreement, limited evidence), the potential reduction through non-technological options is rarely assessed and the potential leverage of policies over these is poorly understood. Due to the limited number of demand-side end-use efficiency options considered by the studies, the omission of non-technological options and the often significant co-benefits, as well as the exclusion of advanced integrated highly efficiency buildings, the real potential is likely to be higher (high agreement, limited evidence).

There is a broad array of accessible and cost-effective technologies and know-how that have not as yet been widely adopted, which can abate GHG emissions in buildings to a significant extent. These include passive solar design, high-efficiency lighting and appliances ^[3] , highly efficient ventilation and cooling systems, solar water heaters, insulation materials and techniques, high-reflectivity building materials and multiple glazing. The largest savings in energy use (75% or higher) occur for new buildings, through designing and operating buildings as complete systems. Realizing these savings requires an integrated design process involving architects, engineers, contractors and clients, with full consideration of opportunities for passively reducing building energy demands. Over the whole building stock the largest portion of carbon savings by 2030 is in retrofitting existing buildings and replacing energy-using equipment due to the slow turnover of the stock (high agreement, much evidence).

Implementing carbon mitigation options in buildings is associated with a wide range of co-benefits. While financial assessment has been limited, it is estimated that their overall value may be higher than those of the energy savings benefits (medium agreement, limited evidence). Economic co-benefits include the creation of jobs and business opportunities, increased economic competitiveness and energy security. Other co-benefits include social welfare benefits for low-income households, increased access to energy services, improved indoor and outdoor air quality, as well as increased comfort, health and quality of life. In developing countries, safe and high-efficiency cooking devices and high-efficiency electric lighting would not only abate substantial GHG emissions, but would reduce mortality and morbidity due to indoor air pollution by millions of cases worldwide annually (high agreement, medium evidence).

There are, however, substantial market barriers that need to be overcome and a faster pace of well-enforced policies and programmes pursued for energy efficiency and de-carbonisation to achieve the indicated high negative and low-cost mitigation potential. These barriers include high costs of gathering reliable information on energy efficiency measures, lack of proper incentives (e.g., between landlords who would pay for efficiency and tenants who realize the benefits), limitations in access to financing, subsidies on energy prices, as well as the fragmentation of the building industry and the design process into many professions, trades, work stages and industries. These barriers are especially strong and diverse in the residential and commercial sectors; therefore, overcoming them is only possible through a diverse portfolio of policy instruments (high agreement, medium evidence).

Energy efficiency and utilisation of renewable energy in buildings offer a large portfolio of options where synergies between sustainable development and GHG abatement exist. The most relevant of these for the least developed countries are safe and efficient cooking stoves that, while cutting GHG emissions, significantly, reduce mortality and morbidity by reducing indoor air pollution. Such devices also reduce the workload for women and children and decrease the demands placed on scarce natural resources. Reduced energy payments resulting from energy-efficiency and utilisation of building-level renewable energy resources improve social welfare and enhance access to energy services.

A variety of government policies have been demonstrated to be successful in many countries in reducing energy-related CO₂ emissions in buildings (high agreement, much evidence). Among these are continuously updated appliance standards and building energy codes and labelling, energy pricing measures and financial incentives, utility demand-side management programmes, public sector energy leadership programmes including procurement policies, education and training initiatives and the promotion of energy service companies. The greatest challenge is the development of effective strategies for retrofitting existing buildings due to their slow turnover. Since climate change literacy, awareness of technological, cultural and behavioural choices are important preconditions to fully operating policies, applying these policy approaches needs to go hand in hand with programmes that increase consumer access to information and awareness and knowledge through education.

To sum up, while buildings offer the largest share of cost-effective opportunities for GHG mitigation among the sectors examined in this report, achieving a lower carbon future will require very significant efforts to enhance programmes and policies for energy efficiency in buildings and low-carbon energy sources well beyond what is happening today.

6.1 Introduction

Measures to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from buildings fall into one of three categories: reducing energy consumption ^[4] and embodied energy in buildings, switching to low-carbon fuels including a higher share of renewable energy, or controlling the emissions of non-CO₂ GHG gases. Renewable and low-carbon energy can be supplied to buildings or generated on-site by distributed generation technologies. Steps to de-carbonise electricity generation can eliminate a substantial share of present emissions in buildings. Chapter 4 describes the options for centralized renewable energy generation, while this chapter covers building-level options for low-carbon electricity generation on-site. This chapter devotes most attention to energy efficiency in new and existing buildings, as fuel switching is largely covered elsewhere in this report ( Chapter 4 ). Non-CO₂ GHGs are treated in depth in the IPCC special report on safeguarding the ozone layer and the climate system (IPCC/TEAP, 2005 ), but some of the most significant issues related to buildings are discussed in this chapter as well.

A very large number of technologies that are commercially available and tested in practice can substantially reduce energy use while providing the same services and often substantial co-benefits. After a review of recent trends in building energy use followed by a description of scenarios of energy use and associated GHG emissions, this chapter provides an overview of the various possibilities in buildings to reduce GHG emissions. Next, a selection of these technologies and practices is illustrated by a few examples, demonstrating the plethora of opportunities to achieve GHG emission reductions as significant as 70–80%. This is followed by a discussion of co-benefits from reducing GHG emissions from buildings, and a review of studies that have estimated the magnitude and costs of potential GHG reductions worldwide.

In spite of the availability of these high-efficiency technolo-gies and practices, energy use in buildings continues to be much higher than necessary. There are many reasons for this energy waste in buildings. The chapter continues with identifying the key barriers that prevent rational decision-making in energy-related choices affecting energy use in buildings. Countries throughout the world have applied a variety of policies in order to deal with these market imperfections. The following sections offer an insight into the experiences with the various policy instruments applied in buildings to cut GHG emissions worldwide. The past five years have shown increasing application of these policies in many countries in Europe and growing interest in several key developing and transition economies. In spite of this fact, global CO₂ emissions resulting from energy use in buildings have increased at an average of 2.7% per year in the past five years for which data is available ( 1999 – 2004 ). The substantial barriers that need to be overcome and the relatively slow pace of policies and programmes for energy efficiency will provide major challenges to rapid achievement of low-emission buildings.

6.2 Trends in buildings sector emissions

In 2004, direct emissions from the buildings sector (excluding the emissions from electricity use) were about 3 GtCO₂, 0.4 GtCO₂-eq CH₄, 0.1 GtCO₂-eq N₂O and 1.5 GtCO₂-eq halocarbons (including CFCs and HCFCs). As mitigation in this sector includes a lot of measures aimed at electricity saving it is useful to compare the mitigation potential with carbon dioxide emissions, including those through the use of electricity. When including the emissions from electricity use, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions were 8.6 Gt/yr ( Price et al., 2006 [NPR, SRC] ), or almost a quarter of the global total carbon dioxide emissions as reported in Chapter 1 . IEA estimates a somewhat higher fraction of carbon dioxide emissions due to buildings.

Figure 6.1 shows the estimated emissions of CO₂ from energy use in buildings from two different perspectives. The bar at the left represents emissions of CO₂ from all energy end-uses in buildings. The bar at the right represents only those emissions from direct combustion of fossil fuels. Because the electricity can be derived from fuels with lower carbon content than current fuels, CO₂ emissions from electricity use in buildings can also be altered on the supply side.

Carbon dioxide emissions, including through the use of electricity in buildings, grew from 1971 to 2004 at an annual rate of 2%, – about equal to the overall growth rate of CO₂ emissions from all uses of energy. CO₂ emissions for commercial buildings grew at 2.5% per year and at 1.7% per year for residential buildings during this period. The largest regional increases in CO₂ emissions (including through the use of electricity) for commercial buildings were from developing Asia (30%), North America (29%) and OECD Pacific (18%). The largest regional increase in CO₂ emissions for residential buildings was from Developing Asia accounting for 42% and Middle East/North Africa with 19%.

During the past seven years since the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR, IPCC, 2001 [NPR] ), CO₂ emissions (including through the use of electricity) in residential buildings have increased at a much slower rate than the 30-year trend (annual rate of 0.1% versus trend of 1.4%) and emissions associated with commercial buildings have grown at a faster rate (3.0% per year in last five years) than the 30-year trend (2.2%) ( Price et al., 2006 [NPR, SRC] ).

Non-CO₂ emissions (largely halocarbons, CFCs, and HCFCs, covered under the Montreal Protocol and HFCs) from cooling and refrigeration contribute more than 15% of the 8.6 GtCO₂ emissions associated with buildings. About 1.5 GtCO₂-eq of halocarbon (HFCs, CFCs and HCFCs) emissions, or 60% of the total halocarbon emissions was due to refrigerants and blowing agents for use in buildings (refrigerators, air conditioners and insulation) in 2002 . Emissions due to these uses are projected to remain about constant until 2015 and decline if effective policies are pursued (IPCC/TEAP, 2005 ).

6.3 Scenarios of carbon emissions resulting from energy use in buildings

Figure 6.2 shows the results for the buildings sector of disaggregating two of the emissions scenarios produced for the IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios SRES ( IPCC, 2000 [NPR] ), Scenarios A1B and B2, into ten world regions ( Price et al., 2006 [NPR, SRC] ). These scenarios show a range of projected buildings related CO₂ emissions (including through the use of electricity): from 8.6 GtCO₂ emissions in 2004 to 11.4 and 15.6 GtCO₂ emissions in 2030 (B2 and A1B respectively), representing an approximately 30% share of total CO₂ emissions in both scenarios. In Scenario B2, which has lower economic growth, especially in the developing world (except China), two regions account for the largest portion of increased CO₂ emissions from 2004 to 2030 : North America and Developing Asia. In Scenario A1B (which shows rapid economic growth, especially in developing nations), all of the increase in CO₂ emissions occurs in the developing world: Developing Asia, Middle East/North Africa, Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa, in that order. Overall, average annual CO₂ emissions growth is 1.5% in Scenario B2 and 2.4% in Scenario A1B over the 26-year period.

For the purpose of estimating the CO₂ mitigation potential in buildings, a baseline was derived based on the review of several studies. This baseline represents an aggregation of national and regional baselines reported in the studies (see Box 6.1 ). The building sector baseline derived and used in this chapter shows emissions between the B2 and A1B (SRES) scenarios, with 11.1 Gt of CO₂-eq emissions in 2020 and 14.3 Gt in 2030 (including electricity emissions).

6.4 GHG mitigation options in buildings and equipment

There is an extensive array of technologies that can be used to abate GHG emissions in new and existing residential and commercial buildings. Prior to discussing options for reducing specific end-uses of energy in buildings it is useful to present an overview of energy end-uses in the residential and commercial sectors, where such information is available and to review some principles of energy-efficient design and operation that are broadly applicable. Figure 6.3 presents a breakdown of energy end-use in the residential and commercial sector for the United States and China. The single largest user of energy in residential buildings in both regions is space heating, followed by water heating (China) and other uses – primarily electric appliances (USA). The order of the next largest uses are reversed in China and the United States, suggesting that electric appliances will increase in use over time in China. The end-uses in commercial buildings are much less similar between China and the United States. For China, heating is by far the largest end-use. For the United States, the largest end-use is other (plug loads involving office equipment and small appliances).

Water heating is the second end-use in China; it is not significant in commercial buildings in the United States. Lighting and cooling are similarly important as the third and fourth largest user in both countries.

The single largest use of energy in residential buildings in both regions is for space heating, followed by water heating. Space heating is also the single largest use of energy in commercial buildings in the EU, accounting for up to 2/3 of total energy use and is undoubtedly dominant in the cold regions of China and in the Former Soviet Union. Lighting is sometimes the largest single use of electricity in commercial buildings, although in hot climates, air conditioning tends to be the single largest use of electricity.

6.5 Potential for and costs of greenhouse gas mitigation in buildings

The previous sections have demonstrated that there is already a plethora of technological, systemic and management options available in buildings to substantially reduce GHG emissions. This section aims at quantifying the reduction potential these options represent, as well as the costs associated with their implementation.

6.6 Co-benefits of GHG mitigation in the residential and commercial sectors

Co-benefits of mitigation policies should be an important decision element for decision-makers in both the residential and commercial sectors. Although these co-benefits are often not quantified, monetized, or perhaps even identified by the decision-makers or economic modellers ( Jochem and Madlener, 2003 [NPR, SRC] ), they can still play a crucial role in making GHG emissions mitigation a higher priority. This is especially true in less economically advanced countries, where environmentalism – and climate change specifically – may not have a strong tradition or a priority role in either the policy agenda or the daily concerns of citizens. In these circumstances, every opportunity for policy integration can be of value in order to reach climate change mitigation goals.

6.7 Barriers to adopting building technologies and practices that reduce GHG emissions

The previous sections have shown the significant cost-effective potential for CO₂ mitigation through energy efficiency in buildings. The question often arises: If these represent profitable investment opportunities, or energy cost savings foregone by households and businesses, why are these opportunities not pursued? If there are profits to be made, why do markets not capture these potentials?

Certain characteristics of markets, technologies and end-users can inhibit rational, energy-saving choices in building design, construction and operation, as well as in the purchase and use of appliances. The Carbon Trust 2005 [NPR] ) suggests a classification of these barriers into four main categories: financial costs/benefits; hidden costs/benefits; real market failures; and behavioural/organizational non-optimalities. Table 6.5 gives characteristic examples of barriers that fall into these four main categories. The most important among them that pertain to buildings are discussed below in further detail.

6.8 Policies to promote GHG mitigation in buildings

Preceding sections have demonstrated the high potential for reducing GHG emissions in buildings through cost-effective energy-efficiency measures and distributed (renewable) energy generation technologies. The previous section has demonstrated that even the cost-effective part of the potential is unlikely to be captured by markets alone, due to the high number of barriers. Although there is no quantitative or qualitative evidence in the literature, it is possible that barriers to the implementation of economically attractive GHG reduction measures are the most numerous and strongest in the building sector, especially in households. Since policies can reduce or eliminate barriers and associated transaction costs ( Brown, 2001 [SRC] ), special efforts targeted at removing the barriers in the buildings sector may be especially warranted for GHG mitigation efforts.

Sections 6.8.1 – 6.8.5 describe a selection of the major instruments summarized in Table 6.6 that complement the more general discussion of Chapter 13 , with a focus on policy tools specific to or specially applied to buildings. The rest of Table 6.6 is discussed in Section 6.8.5 .

6.9 Interactions of mitigation options with vulnerability, adaptation and sustainable development

6.10 Critical gaps in knowledge

During the review of the global literature, a few important areas have been identified which are not adequately researched or documented. First, there is a critical lack of literature and data about GHG emissions and mitigation options in developing countries. Whereas the situation is somewhat better in developed regions, in the vast majority of countries detailed end-use data is poorly collected or reported publicly, making analyses and policy recommendations insufficiently robust. Furthermore, there is a severe lack of robust, comprehensive, detailed and up-to-date bottom-up assessments of GHG reduction opportunities and associated costs in buildings worldwide, preferably using a harmonized methodology for analysis. In existing assessments of mitigation options, co-benefits are typically not included, and in general, there is an important need to quantify and monetize these so that they can be integrated into policy decision frameworks. Moreover, there is a critical lack of understanding, characterisation and taxonomization of non-technological options to reduce GHG emissions. These are rarely included in global GHG mitigation assessment models, potentially largely underestimating overall potentials. However, our policy leverage to realise these options is also poorly understood. Finally, literature on energy price elasticities in the residential and commercial sectors in the different regions is very limited, while essential for the design of any policies influencing energy tariffs, including GHG taxes and subsidy removal.

REFERENCES

ACT, 2006: <http://www.actpla.act.gov.au/topics/property_purchases/sales/energy_efficiency>, accessed on July 3, 2007. [NPR]

Aebischer, B., G. Henderson, and D. Catenazzi, 2006: Impact of climate change on energy demand in the Swiss service sector - and application to Europe. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Improving Energy Efficiency in Commercial Buildings (IEECB ‘06), April 2006, Germany. [NPR]

AIM, 2004: GHG Emissions and Climate Change. National Institute for Environmental Studies, Tsukuba, <http://www-iam.nies.go.jp/aim/aimpamph/pdf/All1115.pdf>, accessed on July 3, 2007. [NPR]

Alam, M., J. Sathaye, and D. Barnes, 1998: Urban household energy use in India: Efficiency and policy implications. Energy Policy, 26(11), pp. 885-892. [ARC]

Alderfer, R.B., M.M. Eldridge, T.J. Starrs, 2000: Making connections: Case studies of interconnection barriers and their impact on distributed power projects. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. [NPR]

Andén, L., 2003: Solar Installations. Practical Applications for the Built Environment. James and James, London. [NPR]

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NOTE: In the Summary of Reviewer Comments,
Accepted includes only those responses that were unambiguously Accepted.
There are other categories of responses that we have not yet quantified
due to inconsistencies of usage.

Summary of Reviewer Comments - Second Order Draft

Reviewer	Total Comments	Accepted	IPCC Roles	Papers
aebischer, Bernard	65	25	0	0
Tonooka, Yutaka	59	27	0	0
Government of U.S. Department of State	52	32	0	0
Macey, Kirsten	27	13	0	0
Government of Australia	25	15	0	1
Government of Germany	17	8	0	0
de T'Serclaes, Philippine	13	8	0	0
Government of Finland	7	2	0	0
Senhaji, Faouzi	6	2	0	0
Government of India	5	4	0	1
Morejon, CF	4	1	0	0
Shimoda, Y	4	2	0	1
McCulloch, Archie	4	2	0	0
Aunan, K	3	2	0	10
IPCC	3	2	0	50
Nakakuki, Shinichi	3	0	0	0
Taylor, MAP	3	1	0	3
Miner, R	3	0	1	2
Campbell, Nick	2	2	0	0
Bartra, Valentin	2	0	0	0
Uddin, Noim	2	1	0	0
jacques, Varet	2	0	0	0
Government of China Meteorological Administration	2	2	0	0
Bonduelle, Antoine	2	2	0	0
Bernstein, L	2	0	3	0
Government of Japan	2	1	0	2
Schleich, J	2	2	0	8
Government of Sweden	1	0	0	0
Verbruggen, A	1	1	1	1
Government of Netherlands/Ministry for the Environment	1	0	0	0
Government of France	1	1	0	0
Roy, J	1	1	2	4
Yoshida, Satoshi	1	0	0	0
Mizuno, Koichi	1	0	0	0
Kaibara, Makoto	1	0	0	0
Hongfa, Di	1	1	0	0
Bogner, J	1	1	2	11
Latif, M	1	0	0	1
Government of European Community / European Commission	1	1	0	0
Kainuma, M	1	1	1	7
Government of Norwegian Pollution Control Authority	1	1	0	0
Totals	335	164	10	102

Overview of Reviewer Comments - Second Order Draft

Reviewer Type	Total Comments	Accepted	% Accepted
Govt	83	47	56%
IPCC	57	33	57%
Indep	195	84	43%
Total	335	164	48%

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